1
THE 18
TH
AUX SOUrCES DU DESIGN
FUrNITUrE MASTErPIECES FrOM 1650 TO 1790
28 OCTOBEr 2014 – 22 FEBrUArY 2015, SALLE D’AFrIqUE AND SALLE DE
CrIMÉE
THE PALACE OF VErSAILLES IS PrOUD TO PrESENT ITS EXHIBITION OF FUrNITUrE
MASTErPIECES FrOM 1650 TO 1789,
with representative examples of the ri creativity
of the period. e exhibition o ers a glimpse of the ingenuity of a bygone era viewed
through the lens of the present day and showcases the innovative and avant-garde
nature of the shapes, te niques, ornamentation and materials used in 18
th
century
furniture. is is the r exhibition of its kind since 1955
.
The exhibition includes a hundred or so works owned by some of the
wealthiest art-lovers of the time, including the royal family and its entourage,
ari ocrats and nanciers, and illu rates the revolution in furniture-making that took
place in the 18
th
century. Works from all the great ma ers will be on di lay, including
those by André-Charles Boulle, Antoine-Robert Gaudreaus, Charles Cressent, Bernard
van Risenburgh II, Jean-François Œben, Jean-Henri Riesener and Georges Jacob
.
Alongside major works from collections at the Palace of Versailles,
the
Musée du Louvre, the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, the Château de Fontainebleau and the Getty
Museum, previously-unknown works from private colle ions will be shown to the public for the
r time.
As visitors make their way around the exhibition, they will come to under and how
furniture shapes and forms evolved over time, from the expansiveness of mid-17
th
century cabinets
to the playful curves of the Louis XV yle to the raight lines of the late 18
th
century.
The abundant creativit y and exceptional craftsmanship of these Ancien régime artists
will be unveiled against a clean, contemporary backdrop.
Unlike paintings, furniture mu
be more than ju admired, they mu be interpreted and explained. Ea piece is presented not as
part of a homogeneous décor but as a singular work of art. Explanations are enhanced using
various visual tools, su as digital magnifying glasses, to bring ea piece’s ar ite ure, pattern,
nish and uniqueness to the fore.
PrESS rELEASE
Exhibition curators
Daniel Alcou e
Honorary curator
Yves Carlier
Head Curator at the Musée
National des Châteaux de Versailles
et de Trianon
Patri Hourcade
Photographer and designer
Patri Lemasson
Head Curator, head of ancient art at
the Petit Palais, Musée des Beaux
Arts in Paris
Gérard Mabille
Honorary curator
2
The École Boulle school of art and design will ho ecial presentations for visitors, even
young ones, to elucidate the conne ion between the culture heritage of ye eryear and today’s
living tradition of artisanry and to explain, for in ance, how a cabinet-maker builds a desk or a
woodworker con ru s a air.
An 18
th
-century design
In 1712, Shaftesbury introduced the term and concept of “design” to art theory. It
contains the dual meaning of “plan” and “intention” and uni es the processes of conceiving and
shaping a work. For the r time furniture was planned with forethought, created with eci c
intention and shaped for both fun ionality and comfort. 18
th
-century furniture was produced
according to design sources, aux sources du design in Fren , both in its overall conception and its
que for harmony between form and fun ion.
The tr ansformation of furniture-making was par alleled by changes in 18th-century
society.
Commissioners of major furniture pieces showed an increasing desire for comfort and
luxury. e close cooperation between planners, ar ite s, ornamentali s (precursors of
designers) and highly skilled artisans formed the basis of our modern philosophy of artisanal, anti-
indu rial design. Decorative-arts purveyors took up a new role similar to that of decorators today
and invented new applications for cabinetry.
The metamorphosis of furnishings
The quest for the ideal shape and form hit its peak in the 18th century, when the silhouette
of furnishings began to ange. Inventiveness and creativity abounded and new outlines began to
take shape, from console tables to commodes to secretary and armoire desks. Rigid outlines began
to so en, then morphed into rounded curves, then gave way to curved legs—sometimes four, six or
even eight of them. Furniture became multipurpose and featured me anisms that allowed it to
transform into something else.
Breakthroughs in the use of materials and colours
The same quest was undertaken in the use of materials, with the rise of exotic woods,
lacquers, varnishes, tortoiseshell, mother of pearl, bronze, brass, lead, porcelain, raw, eel and
one marquetry. Cloth, bulrush and copper began to be used in airs. Long before the garish
colours a orded by pla ic in the 20th and 21
centuries, the 18
th
century saw the birth of furniture
in red, da odil yellow, turquoise blue and apple green, sometimes lashed with gold and silver. At
the same time, other colour palettes were limited to the bla and gold of lacquer and bronze, and
patterns were reduced to natural ones made out of quality materials su as mahogany.
3
Through its displays, presentations and explanations of lines and designs and the reasons for the
transformation of the decorative arts, this exhibition reveals the driving force of invention in the
age of enlightenment, when furniture-making r became an art. Ar ite s, arti s, mer ants
and simple artisans came together to give new form to wood creations, to shape furniture into
something the world had never seen.
Nothing would ever be the same again. e three daily a s of sitting on a air, sitting at a
table and organizing the home would, in the 18
th
century, morph into art. Where tidying clutter
once meant secreting things away, it now meant putting them on di lay. Straight-ba ed airs
gave way to more comfortable seating. Severe, throne-like arm airs ret ed into aises longues.
Tables with drawers turned into desks and commodes. At the same time, raight lines were
replaced by curves before regaining their place of favour. Décor, originally the realm of textiles and
wall ornamentation, read to corners, expanded to ridges and hinges, taking on shapes and
colours along the way thanks to manifold te niques and e e s, some experimental.
Furniture received new finishes and took on new silhouet tes, exploring new materials
and seeking new contours for the r time. Cabinet-makers threw o of the sha les of
ar ite ure while simultaneously playing with it and mimi ing its yles. Furniture became
lighter in tone, frillier, and comfort and luxury took on a larger role.
Daily activities became closely tied to furniture, whi came into its own during this time.
e relationship between the individual and furniture became arker and an art in its own right.
Owing to their ru ure and ingeniousness and the incomparable quality of their artisanry, 18th-
century furnishings became a main ay of daily life and fashion, with all of the era’s trends and
yles. Along the way, furniture-making acquired new atus and recognition, known forever a er
as an intelle ual design process. Today, 21
-century te nology helps us focus on these inventive
creations from the pa , inviting exhibition visitors to trace their hi ory and gain a better
under anding of the origins of furniture as we know it today.
Patrick Hourcade
PHOTOGrAPHEr AND DESIGNEr, CO-CUrATOr OF THE EXHIBITION
Foreword
4
The Most Important Innovation In French Furniture-Making In The 17
Th
Century Was The
Development Of Cabinetry. In The Early 17Th Century Flemish And German Artisans
Invented Inl aying Using Techniques Originally Used To Apply Veneers, A Thin Sheet Of
Wood Laid Over The Wood Of Furniture. The First Material Used In Cabinet-Making Was
Ebony, Giving rise To The French Name For The Art, “Ébénisterie.” New Techniques Like
Marquetry Came Soon After, Followed By The Use Of New Materials Such As Marble,
Mosaics Of Hard Stone Or Gilt Bronze, Expanding The range Of Ornamentation.
Cabinets, or the first grand ceremonial furniture
Architectural and theatrical, a cabinet’s ornamentation is the natural arting point when
seeking new ways to vary its appearance.
Cabinet
Paris, ca. 1675 (whole piece); Florence, 1664-1672 ( one inlaid
panels)
Re ored by Charles Hempel, cabinet-maker in Strasbourg, 1862-
1865
Cabinet: made of partially poly rome oak and resinous wood,
ebony and jacaranda veneer, tin, ained horn, hard one inlay,
gilt bronze, painted glass and ained glass in the body. Base:
partially sculpted gilt poly rome oak. H. 2.58; L: 1.91: W: 0.60 m.
Strasbourg, Musée des Arts Décoratifs
is cabinet evokes the lendour and luxury of grand
ceremonial furniture that became popular during the reign of
Louis XIV. ough quite di erent in yle from the highly
Italianate cabinets made by Domenico Cucci at the famed
Gobelins visual arts s ool in Paris during the same period, this
Strasbourg piece is an eloquent illu ration of the Fren blend of
yle used in Parisian cabinetry in the 1670s.
Part one: cabinet-making
5
André-charles boulle, or the quest for organization: the
creation of the desk and commode
Both designer and craftsman, andré-charles boulle lent his name to the boulle
technique,
whi consi s of a ing two materials together, usually tortoiseshell and bronze,
and cutting out an inlay pattern.
Until the 17
th
century, armoires and chests were primarily used to hold objects. Writing
tables, whi were traditionally covered with monk’s cloth, a heavy woollen fabric, gave way to
desks with drawers and tops inlaid with copper.
Toward the end of louis xiv’s reign, cabinet-makers were mo ly producing commodes and
at-top desks. Commodes themselves were derived from eight-legged desks to whi drawers had
been added all along one side.
André-Charles Boulle, commode.
Paris, 1708. Ebony veneer, tortoiseshell and bronze inlay, gilt
bronze, griotte marble. Versailles, Musée National des
Châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon.
is commode from the ambers of Louis XIV at Trianon is
the earlie known commode. e piece’s con ru ion bears
signs of the trial and error that occurred before it was nally
completed. It appears to be a hybrid of two pieces of
furniture built from two independent elements: a table
placed over a bureau with its own set of legs. e entire work
is an example of the era’s ta e for ri materials and contra ing colours, with the gold of gilt bronze, the red of the
griotte marble top and the dark brown of the tortoiseshell veneers inlaid with bronze. e pro le of the drawers—
one convex, the other concave—is a te imony to the artisan’s ma ery of veneering te niques and hints at the
rococo yle that would make great use of the play between curves and countercurves.
Grand furniture
Beginning in the 18
th
century, grand furniture began developing outwards in ead of
upwards.
A recent invention, the commode became a ceremonial furnishing that occupied an important
place r in the bedroom, then in salons and udies.
Double commode with drawers
and doors.
Paris, ca. 1730. Made of oak and conifer,
rosewood veneer, curly walnut, red marble
from Rance, gilt bronze. H. 0.840; L. 2.820;
W. 0.825 m. Paris, Musée des Arts Décoratifs.
e silhouette of this commode, as well as its patterned veneer and gilt bronze ornamentation is ara eri ic of
furnishings from the 1730s. e piece itself ands out for its exceptional size: nearly three metres long in ead of the
traditional one and a half for a commode. It ands on four legs capped with bronze bearclaw sabots and features
powerful lines that enhance its lively form. e crossbow-shaped façade extends beyond the front legs, and the body
contains corner cupboards with doors that open out. e entire piece is covered with re angular, diamond-
patterned rosewood veneer panels accented by ri gilt-bronze embellishments arranged symmetrically. Its acanthus
leaves, mirrors, bases, shells, scalloped borders and beaded utes are also typical of the classic Regency yle. Only
the bearclaw sabots o er a glimpse of originality that is nevertheless particularly suited to the furniture’s unusual
size.
6
Oriental lacquer
Western artisans were fascinated by rare and previous lacquers of China and Japan and by
Oriental orage e s and folding screens. Working under art purveyors, cabinet-makers were
able to adapt Ea ern lacquers to We ern silhouettes, whi were usually curvy during the
Louis XV era.
Bernard van Risenburgh II (BVRB)
Commode of Marie Leszczinska.
Paris, 1737. Made of oak, fruitwood veneer, Japanese
lacquer, vernis Matin, gilt bronze, marble from Antin
(or Sarrancolin). H. 0.850; L. 1.275; W. 0.610 m.
Paris, Musée du Louvre.
is commode owned by Marie Leszczinska was
delivered to her by art mer ant omas-Joa im
Hébert in 1737 for her cabinet de retraite at the Chateau
de Fontainebleau. It is without a doubt one of the mo
innovative pieces of furniture to be made during the transition to lacquer in the 18th century. It is the r known,
well documented furnishing to feature panels coated with Japanese lacquer, rightfully reputed to be mu more
complicated to reuse than Chinese lacquer. In this piece, BVRB transcended all te nical and ae hetic di culties
and arrived at a solution that was brilliant to say the lea and would not be improved upon in the 18
th
century. In the
second half of the century, using su lacquers on non- at surfaces was a risky proposition, not only because of the
popularity of patterns in relief but also due to the hardness of the panels.
Ensembles by charles cressent
A sculptor by training, Charles Cressent, mu like André-Charles Boulle, created furniture
from his own designs. He also supplied models of his bronzes, whi were occasionally veritable
sculptures themselves, and created ensembles su as a bureau and le cabinet.
Charles Cressent
Medallion cabinet. Paris, ca. 1750.
Body and drawer made of oak, amaranth veneer variegated with horizontal thread
lines and satin- nish wood pattern accented with double threads of boxwood and
ebony. H. 1.91; L. 1.10; W. 0.43 m.
Lisbon, Museu Calou e Gulbenkian.
e inside contains sixty-eight medallion drawer pulls. One of Cressent’s later
works (the work includes a 1747 dauphin medallion), this medallion cabinet is
one of his greate ma erpieces. It uses several of his be sculpted motifs (for
example, bu s of ancient generals and scenes of ildren minting coins) with
re ned veneer patterns that evoke the uphol ery (contra ing matte ba grounds
with shiny rips of satin nish). Medallion cabinets at the time typically took the
form of small boxes, but with this piece Cressent ose to create an original form
that combined a la -century cabinet and base with a ceremonial cupboard mu
like Boulle produced circa 1700. Mr. De Selle, one of Cressent’s mo important
cu omers, owned an identical medallion cabinet in his home mat ed with two massive armoires also embellished with
ornate bas-reliefs of ildren from arti ic allegories. Today, both armoires are on di lay at the Musée du Louvre.
7
The triumph of the curve
The skilled use of curves and countercurves in both body and décor is the very de nition of
the re ned, supple and uid yle typical of Louis XV.
Bernard van Risenburgh II (BVRB)
File cabinet owned by Ma ault d’Arnouville
.
Paris, ca. 1745-1749.
Made of oak, rosewood veneer and oral marquetry, centre leaf
opens to reveal seven solid-rosewood drawers, two doors on
the side; gilt-bronze ornamentation: panel frames decorated
with rococo and leafy embellishments; Brè e d’Alep marble
H. 1.05; L. 1.65; W. 0.49 m
Private colle ion
Until recently, this bas d’armoire (“low armoire”) was in the possession of Ma ault’s descendants at the Chateau de
oiry. One inventory describes it as “a low rosewood armoire with one door on the front, furnished with drawers on
the inside, decorated with veneer owers and ormolu copper frames and mouldings over Brè e d’Alep marble,
valued at 400 livres.” Fine porcelain designs were laid over its marble top, both made of Japanese porcelain: a ray of
owers on a white ba ground and two white embossed vases. e armoire was kept in Ma ault’s library, whi was
located between his udy and his bedroom. In the library, three windows looked out into the garden. e purpose of
the armoire is not clear. One theory is that it may have been used to ore shells or minerals, although the 1795
inventory made no mention of any colle ions of shells, natural science obje s or minerals in the library. Another
theory is that the mo valuable of the 161 folios in the inventory—out of the thousand volumes or so li ed—may
have been kept in the side compartments of the armoire.
Writing
Craftsmen developed diverse, sometimes highly complex mechanisms to allow writers to
write anding up, seated on a air, arm air or sofa, or even lying down, and to expand desks’
fun ionality to include other purposes su as orage and reading.
At the time, writing required not only paper, but a place to keep ink, a pen and sand to
qui ly absorb fresh ink
.
Bernard van Risenburgh II (BVRB)
Secretary desk of Louis XV at Trianon
Paris, ca. 1755. Made of oak, rosewood, violet wood, gilt bronze, white marble and blue satin.
H. 2.290; L. 1.120; W. 0.530 m.
Le Mans, Musée de Tessé.
is uniquely designed piece was sold dire ly to the king by art purveyor Lazard Duvaux.
His logbook records it thus: “His Maje y the King: one secretary desk composed of
cupboards with doors veneered with owers and fronted with glass, decorated with ormolu
gilt bronze, and with a marble slab and three silver horns.” With elegantly sinuous lines beautifully accenting its ne
bronze ornamentation and oral marquetry made of endgrain violet wood and rosewood, this piece bears all the
hallmarks of Bernard van Risenburgh II. In 1990, the discovery of his amp on the piece con rmed its origin.
.
8
THE KING’S STUDY
At times, the king needed to write letters in private and keep his own letters hidden away
from others. e roll-top desk was created for this purpose. A complex me anism allowed the king
to open the roll top, unlo the drawers and access hidden compartments, all with a single key.
Along the sides, separate drawers contained inkwells that could be re lled without opening the
desk. A two-faced clo whose inner workings were independent from the roll top was inset at the
top of the entire piece. e desk is a ma erful example of poly rome marquetry from the period.
Jean-François Œben and Jean-Henri Riesener
King’s desk Paris, 1760-1769
Made of oak, satin- nish, amaranth and rosewood (mainly) veneer, gilt bronze, porcelain.
H. 1.473; L. 1.925; W. 1.050 m
Versailles, Musée National des Châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon
Cra ed by Jean-François Œben and Jean-Henri Riesener, Louis XV’s secretary desk is considered the mo iconic
piece of furniture of the 18th century. Remarkable for its grandeur and for the beauty of its marquetry tableaux and
bronzes, the desk is highly complex and beautifully made. Started in 1760 by Œben, a ma er marquetry artisan
renowned for his creations of small me anized furniture, the desk was nally delivered nine years later in 1769 by
his udent Jean-Henri Riesener.
Every detail required a great deal of skill. A marvel of me anics, the desk contained a complex sy em of rings and
counterweights that opened the roll-top lid and all of the drawers with a simple quarter turn of the key. e oval roll
top was composed of seven articulated slats veneered with violet wood, sycamore and mahogany. Cra smen from
fourteen disciplines, including cabinetry, bronze-working, carving, gilding and clo -making, were required to
create the nal produ . e bronze gures were ca and carved by Louis-Barthélémy Hervieu based on models by
Jean-Claude Duplessis.
9
Colour
By now, marquetry performed in the 18th century has lo mo of its original colour (whi
may have been blue, green, pink, grey or another colour), dulling into shades of amber. But thanks
to the use of other materials su as porcelain, lacquer and varnishes, we are occasionally a orded
glimpses into the intensity of those faded colours and re ned harmonies—proof of hues used by
18th-century furniture-makers
.
Matthieu Criaerd
Commode of madame de Mailly. Paris, 1742.
Made of oak, fruitwood veneer, vernis Martin, silvered bronze, Turkey Blue Marble. H. 0.850; L. 1.320; W. 0.635 m.
Paris, Musée du Louvre.
A one-of-a-kind piece, this commode ands on curved legs and is coated with blue and white vernis Martin designed
to mimic Oriental lacquer. e “Chinese- yle” rococo décor introduces an air of re nement. With its multiple
colours and Asian-in ired motifs applied using Oriental te niques, the bureau demon rates the popularity of
exoticism and European décor at the time. e silvered bronze ornamentation, consi ing of utes along the ridges
of the legs and openwork sabots, are ara eri ic of Criaerd’s work.
Materials
Shapes and veneering also saw new innovations thanks to the rise of manufa ured produ s
(for example, porcelain, hard one, coated sheet metal) and the use of unusual materials (su as
raw, lead or eel)
.
Pierre Macret
Varnished sheet metal commode. Paris, ca. 1770
Made of oak and pine, sheet metal, gilt bronze,
white veined marble. H. 0.895; L. 1.363; W. 0.623 m.
Versailles, Musée National des Châteaux de
Versailles et de Trianon.
is two-door sheet metal commode is composed
of four panels of varnished sheet metal painted
with four medallions in the Oriental yle. Pierre
Macret holds a ecial place among 18
th
-century
Parisian cabinet-makers. Appointed cabinet-maker
to the king in 1757, he cra ed his pieces in his
workshop on Rue Saint-Nicolas. In 1764, he began supplying the royal household’s Menus-Plaisirs department, whi
was re onsible for the “lesser pleasures” of King Louis XV. His reputation attra ed commissions from some of the
mo important art lovers and purveyors of the time. He himself also a ed as an art purveyor, working from Rue
Saint-Honoré.
10
Greek-style
As time went on, tastes changed and what was once curvy became raight again. e “Greek”
yle of furniture was discovered in Italy by the Marquis of Marigny while on an educational
journey arranged by his si er, the Marquise of Pompadour. Jean-François created an interim
commode integrating the new forms. Furniture bodies became raight, though the legs maintained
their curvature
.
J
ean-François Œben
Greek commode. Paris, ca. 1760-1763
Made of oak, front made of solid mahogany, thi mahogany
veneer, red marble (from Mayenne). H. 0.84; L. 1.32; W. 0.56 m.
Private colle ion.
is type of commode, called a “Greek commode,” was li ed
in the po humous inventory of Madame de Pompadour in
1764, including an inventory taken at the Chateau de Ménars.
Another inventory taken at Ménars upon the death in 1782 of
the Marquis de Marigny, her brother and heir, shows that the
term was used for commodes with central doors anked by doors, with or without a row of frieze drawers. e
commodes, whi numbered 19, were mo ly made of mahogany, a relatively new wood at the time.
Graphics and ornamentation, or the birth of the louis xvi
style
Preferences for silhouet tes and their frames also shifted. As shapes and forms evolved, so
did the gilt bronze ornamentation—sometimes subtly and other times more dramatically.
Guillaume Benneman under the dire ion of
Jean Hauré. Commode for Marie-Antoinette’s
grand cabinet at the Chateau de
Fontainebleau.
Paris, 1786. Mahogany, porcelain, gilt bronze,
white marble. H. 0.96; L. 1.82; W. 0.75 m.
Fontainebleau, Musée National du Château.
is commode was one of a pair famous for
residing in Marie-Antoinette’s grand cabinet at
the Chateau de Fontainebleau and for the number of copies it in ired. e Royal Furniture Treasury had pur ased
four commodes originally intended for the Count of Provence, brother of Louis XVI. e commode shown here was
based on one of those four. It is veneered with ebony and has a similar shape, scroll bronzes and three porcelain
medallions from Paris—two depi ing bouquets of owers and the third, a portrait medallion, showing a love scene.
Re ored under the dire ion of Jean Hauré for the queen’s ambers at the Chateau de Compiègne, the commode
was widened slightly. Its marble was replaced, its bronze gilded and its ebony veneer anged to mahogany. e
portrait medallion was sub ituted with a biscuit medallion pur ased from the porcelain fa ory in Sèvres.
Con ru ion of a larger copy of the commode (about 21 cm wider) began, for whi Hauré pur ased three more
medallions in Sèvres: two depi ing bouquets of owers and one biscuit medallion. Part way through the process, it
was nally decided that the two commodes would be placed in the queen’s grand cabinet at Fontainebleau, requiring
a resizing of the commodes. e un nished copy was reduced by two in es (about ve centimetres), but the same
could not be done to the original commode. In ead, a new body was built with the corre dimensions, and as many
decorations as possible were reused from the r commode, including the porcelain medallions and the bronzes.
11
Grandeur
Exceptionally large commodes sometimes required input from ar ite s. Su pieces drew
upon knowledge from the eld of ar ite ure to create furniture o en intended for a eci c ace.
MÉCANISMs
The demand for new functions and for multipurpose furniture led to the creation of some
ingenious, complex and precise me anisms and the rise of multipurpose tables, roll-top desks and
furniture with hidden compartments.
David Roentgen
Me anical roll-top desk. Ca. 1781.
Made of oak, mahogany veneer, gilt bronze, eel.
H. 1.48; L. 1.49; W. 0.83 m.
Versailles, Musée National des Châteaux de Versailles et de
Trianon.
is roll-top desk is entirely veneered with mahogany and
decorated with gilt bronze in a purely classical yle. It ands on
eight tapered legs. Impeccable cabinetwork is combined with
precise and complex me anisms. e desk is a veritable
rongbox: opening the rigid roll top and the many drawers and compartments requires a complete knowledge of the
varied secrets embedded into the piece by the desk’s maker. Opening the roll top unlo s three di erently sized
compartments anked by Doric gilt-bronze columns and sitting atop a triglyph frieze. Above, the main side of the
central compartment now features a bronze medallion with a pro le of Louis XVI. e medallion was replaced by
the bronzier Denière in 1835, sugge ing a royal provenance. Little is known about the previous medallion, whi
depi ed a pro le from antiquity. e entirety of the gilt-bronze décor was found to be the work of Parisian bronzier
François Remond (ca. 1745-1812).
Purity of lines
Linear silhouettes came into vogue in the 1780s, combining yles borrowed from antiquity
with beautiful designs and resulting in furniture with very pure lines
.
Table,
Paris, ca. 1780. Made of oak, reinforcements made of walnut,
varnished metal, gilt bronze, antique green marble.
H. 0.790; L. 0.970; W. 0.515 m.
Paris, Musée du Petit Palais.
A new yle arose in the mid-to-late 1770s in whi tables and
consoles were built using a slab of ancient or valuable marble
tted over a base made of marble, wood cra ed by a cabinet-
maker or entirely of metal, as seen in this table.
12
Woodworkers tr aditionally made chairs, beds and consoles out of painted or gilded
wood. These pieces of furniture were not veneered with other types of wood but were
instead sculpted or moulding was simply added. Then it was the upholsterer’s duty to
finish the pieces by embellishing them and covering them with materials that r anged
from silk to upholstery to leather to cane.
Chairs
Whether straight or curved, the r anges made to airs were to the position of armre s
and their supports, whi varied depending on the period.
Arm air owned by Pierre Crozat.
Paris, ca. 1710-1720.
Gilded walnut, red and tan Morocco leather, red and white
reps lines.
Paris, Musée du Louvre
Shown in its original condition, this arm air illu rates the
transition from the linear Louis XIV air to the Louis XV
air. e armre s are arranged dire ly in line with the legs,
and the embellishments—whi include acanthus, shells,
gadrooning, ova and latticework—are ill in the Louis XIV
yle. However, the lines are rounder, the bracing has
disappeared, and the piece as a whole is mu more decorative,
with an abundance of ma erful sculpturing that features
motifs depi ing various scenes, beautiful gilding and
recutting in gesso. e two-tone red and tan Morocco leather
garniture, separated by a red and white ripe, plays an important role. e air is signi cant in being one of the few
surviving examples of ornamentation on antique leather.
Part two: woodworking
13
Curve and comfort: louis xv style
Changes to overall curve of chairs went hand-in-hand with greater comfort. is took the
form of lower and deeper seats, wider armre s and eep corbelling of the ba re
.
Attributed to Louis Cresson
Arm air
Paris, ca. 1735. Bee and walnut, modern velvet.
H. 1.00; L. 0.83; W. 0.96 m
Paris, Musée des Arts Décoratifs.
In the r half the 18
th
century, woodworkers were particularly
inventive when it came to airs, creating pieces suitable for
multiple purposes, transforming shapes and adopting the new
trend of sculpted décor on wood panels through the use of
highly skilled sculpted ornamentation. is voluminous
arm air ands on beautifully curved squat legs and features a
deep, broad seat with cushion and high ba , elements that
contributed to the comfort so sought a er at the time without
quite turning it into a bergère or du esse air. e air’s proportions are large but balanced, and likewise its
embellishments nd equilibrium between rococo and naturali yles, neither o entatious nor excessive. is low-
seated air is a prime example of early rococo- yle produ ions.
Grand chairs
In the gr andest chairs, quality construction and virtuosic sculpture work are
combined with skilful ar ite ure, then further enhanced by the work of painters, gilders and
uphol erers.
Nicolas-Quinibert Foliot, probably to a design by Pierre Contant
d’Ivry
Fauteuil à la reine, fauteuil à assis and “regular” air from the
Palazzo della Pilotta
Paris, ca. 1749. Gilt oak. H. 1.10; L. 0.75; W. 0.67 m.
St. Petersburg, Hermitage Museum
A ma erpiece of composition and sculpture, this air is also an
example of the Parisian yle created for export, an over-the-top
demon ration of Fren skill and ingenuity.
14
Perfection and the rise of new trends
Refinements to chair frames allowed ornamentation to ange with the seasons and airs to be
given a whole new look at little expense.
Jean Boucault
Fauteuil à la reine and fauteuil à assis (one of a pair)
Paris, ca. 1758. Gilt bee . H. 1.07; L. 0.68; W. 0.59 m
Private colle ion
Jean Boucault was one of the great air-makers of the 18th century. An
example of his work is shown here. In keeping with the “symmetrical
rococo” yle of the 1750s, these two airs and out immediately for their
fragmented form and “broken” sinuous lines. Working from a lively base
ru ure, Boucault reined in its energy with playful clashing mouldings
and by cutting proje ions into the wood. is desire to break up the
air’s lines can be compared with contemporary works by ma er air-
maker Nicolas Heurtaut. e famous iral scrolls ara eri ic of
Heurtaut’s works can be seen here on the conne or piece between the
seat and ba re . Also notable is the particularly unusual nervy, accato
form of the arm support, the supple lines of the front legs, the trompe-l’oeil ower placed on one bar above the legs,
and the extraordinary, impetuous moulding of the conne or piece between the arm support and crossbar.
GrAND ENSEMBLES
Sofas, confidantes, armchairs, seating chairs, stools and folding chairs were all created
to form yli ically coherent ensembles.
Nicolas Heurtaut, probably designed by Pierre
Contant d’Ivry
Pair of fauteuils à la reine (out of a set of six), a
canapé à la reine and a furnishing with two
moveable con dantes
Paris, ca. 1757. Bee painted in blue-green
Arm air: H. 0.96; L. 0.66; W. 0.59 m, Sofa: H. 1.14;
L. 1.95; W. 0.70 m, Con dante: H. 1.06; L. 0.63; W.
0.70 m, Canapé and con dantes: L. 3.30 m.
Private colle ion
is con dante canapé is arguably one of the mo beautiful ma erpieces of air-making. Two types of con dante
canapés were built in the 18
th
century: canapés with xed con dantes and those with moveable con dantes. e latter
were rarer since the sculpting of the con dantes had to perfe ly mat that of the canapé with whi they
interlo ed. It can be observed that the end legs of the canapé are only half sculpted, as are those of the con dantes.
When the two legs come together, they form the complete design. Similarly, the coup de fouet armre s and arm
supports are also divided in half.
15
The return of straight lines
Towards the end of Louis XV’s reign, a ba lash again the excesses of curvy yles resulted in
a return to raighter lines, heralding the Louis XVI yle.
Georges Jacob
Gameroom arm air of Louis XVI at the Chateau de Saint-Cloud
Paris, 1788. Gilt wood. H. 1.00; L. 0.69; W. 0.60 m.
Paris, Musée du Louvre.
is arm air features the mo classical ornamentation of the Louis
XVI yle, judiciously apportioned among various components of the
air and accentuating its ru ure. It is an exemplary representation of
a Louis XVI air and does ju ice to its creator, Georges Jacob, one of
the greate woodworkers of his time.
Comfort and refinement in the new style
The desire for both comfort and luxury led to the use of expensive pra ices to please
cu omers commissioning furniture. Mo -ups for pieces for Marie-Antoinette for the Belvedere
Pavilion at the Chateau du Petit Trianon illu rate the extent to whi re nement was sought, whi
can be seen in the multitude of propositions of ba re s, aprons, legs and uphol ery.
Gille-François Martin (attributed to), designed by Jacques Gondoin
Mo -up of a bergère arm air.
Paris, 1780. Colored wax on a wood, cardboard and paper base.
H. 0.14; L. 0.90; W. 0.90 m
Versailles, Musée National des Châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon
is 1/7 size mo -up (the real thing ood 0.92 m tall) was created by
Gilles-François Martin, a sculptor and pattern-maker to the Royal
Furniture Treasury, in 1780 under the dire ion of Jacques Gondoin,
the Treasury’s designer. e piece was one of a pre igious set of eight
airs and eight bergères commissioned by Marie-Antoinette for the
Belvedere Pavilion at the Chateau du Petit Trianon (on the grounds of
the Chateau de Versailles). is mo -up was one of many phases in
the complex process of forming a piece of furniture. A er dra ing
large-scale drawings of the bergère and air and receiving approval
from Marie-Antoinette, ar ite Ri ard Mique and Pierre-Élisabeth
de Fontanieu, Treasury overseer, Gondoin asked Martin to create a three-dimensional, “small-scale model of the
arm air [bergère] and air” out of wax, a malleable and modi able material. It can be observed that multiple
design options were given in the model: arm supports in the shape of a mermaid or lion’s head and shepherd’s hook,
legs resembling a quiver of arrows or a ribbed or smooth torso, and even animal claws for feet (a er all, it was ill
only 1780!).
16
François-Toussaint Foliot, designed by Jacques Gondoin
Light cabriolet “regular” air, assis air (for the seat)
Paris, ca. 1780-1781
Regilded bee . H. 0.89; L. 0.56; W. 0.56 m
Versailles, Musée National des Châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon.
Under the dire ion of Fontanieu and Mique, the Royal Furniture
Treasury took arge of the order by asking Jacques Gondoin, the royal
furniture-designer, to come up with a new air design. Large-scale
drawings of the bergère and arm air were made, a 1/7 scale mo -up
was created out of wax by the sculptor Martin, and nally a life-size
model was made of clay for Marie-Antoinette’s approval. e clay
model was made using a pla er mould, itself created using the hollow
lo -wax ca ing method. e model was then adorned with wax
embellishments and even painted with various types of fabric. In all,
Gondoin’s modelling process took four and a half months and co
3,200 livres, an extravagant sum at the time. In November 1780, once
Gondoin had nished the mo -up he handed the proje over to artisans to create the real-life version of the
approved piece. François-Toussaint Foliot, air-maker to the Royal Furniture Treasury, was osen to perform the
woodwork. e eight bergères and eight airs were delivered to Marie-Antoinette in July 1781. ey were described
as having “Roman- yle wood” and were garnished with cushions. ey also featured heavy cloth draping from the
seat (see mo -up) and silk painted by Gondoin himself with extraordinary oral motifs and arabesques.
Alas, though the ensemble was some of the mo expensive furniture ever created for Marie-Antoinette, it was the
swansong of the Foliot family. Nevertheless, when unveiled the new-fashioned airs would come to in uence an
entire generation of air-makers and wood-sculptors
Grand classicism, exoticism and modernity
The Louis XVI st yle was also remarkable for its que for exoticism and purity of lines.
Georges Jacob. Brisée cabriolet- yle aise longue
Paris, ca. 1780-1785. Gilt bee and walnut. Bergère: H. 1.00;
L. 0.74; W. 0.71 m. Legs: H. 0.705 ; L. 0.655 ; W. 0.925 m.
Paris, Musée Jacquemart-André
Also called a du ess air in the 18th century, this aise
longue is made up of two independent parts that join
together: a bergère arm air with a high cabriolet (concave)
ba with a convex front seat rail, and a foot ool with a
concave front seat rail and, at the other end, a smaller version
of the arm air’s ba re .
Besides the ma erful cra smanship ara eri ic of Georges Jacob, immediately apparent on the aise longue are
the highly original arm supports on the foot ool se ion, whi depi two bare-brea ed mermaids (one on the
right, one on the le ) with one arm hiding their e s, seated on tasselled cushions and balancing another cushion
on their heads. e armre itself sits atop the head cushions. e mermaids’ legs do not end in shtails but rather in
arabesque scrolls.
17
A history in three consoles
When displayed together, these three consoles encompass the entire exhibition by
illu rating and juxtaposing evolutions of yle and decorative trends that ara erized the 18
th
century.
Console tables fell under the woodworking category and were above all else ar ite ural
furnishings in whi gilt wood played a particularly prominent role. Originating in the late 17
th
century around the same time as trumeau mirrors, they were a main ay of interior décor
throughout the 18
th
century. ey began as permanent wainscoting xtures cu om-made for a
eci c location, usually aces between windows or hanging above a replace with mat ing
marble. Viewed outside of their native habitat today, they serve as a te ament to the creative energy
of sculptor-decorators in furniture-making. eir creation required the knowledge of ar ite s,
decorative woodworkers and sculptors.
Large console table
Paris, ca. 1720. Sculpted, gilt oak, red marble
from Rance. H. 0.96; L. 1.69; W. 0.80 m
(including the marble)
Paris, Musée des Arts Décoratifs
is console was clearly designed to be
di layed again a wall and viewed from the
front. Its sculpted décor appears on only
three of the four sides and comprises a
mosaic ba ground superimposed with palm
leaves, scrolls and owery bran es. At the centre of the front side is a satyr mask in a cartou e; mat ing satyr
heads in shells appear on the short sides of the table. e four supporting table legs end in goat’s hooves. ey are
accented by jagged compartments sculpted with acanthus owers. e upper part of the legs feature an openwork
design and powerful winged dragons whose tails encircle the base of the legs and whose ne s and heads rea out
towards the table’s apron. e dragon motif is also found on the ret er that conne s the four legs. e wood is
curved and sculpted once more, and open-mouthed dragons appear to be atta ing the centre of the ret er,
composed of a round moulded base bordered by ova and gadroons in counter-relief. e base was likely meant to
hold a porcelain or hard- one vase.
Nicolas Heurtaut
Wainscoting console
Paris, ca. 1758. Repainted oak, yellow Brè e marble
from Seriny. H. 0.95; L. 1.73; W. 0.85 m.
Colle ion from the département of Val-d’Oise
is console was built very mu in this yle and is a
ellar representative of the symmetrical rococo yle of
the 1750s. It has a lively ru ure and an asymmetrical
“walnut” ret er reinforced by a robu openwork
shell in the centre of the apron and other shells, also symmetrical, at the tops of the legs. At the top of the walnut is
an outlined heart-shaped cartel iconic of the po -rococo years. ese features were typical of Heurtaut, as were the
piece’s expansive shapes, broad wood pieces and deep, nervy sculpture work. Notably, this is the only known console
amped by the air-maker. e making of console tables was usually the realm of building woodworkers, who
di ered from air woodworkers in that they worked primarily on wall-related con ru ion proje s—including
console tables di layed again walls. In creating this piece Heurtaut took on the role of a building woodworker,
whi was unusual but not illegal in the trade.
18
Console.
Paris, ca. 1785. Sculpted gilt oak, white marble.
H. 0.980; L. 2.275; W. 0.890 m
Versailles, Musée National des Châteaux de
Versailles et de Trianon
is console ands on six legs carved into
bundles of rods topped with a helmet
decorated with laurel bran es. e ret er
features ornate panels with sculptures of
plants (laurel, lilies, olive trees and ivy), and its “walnut” takes the shape of a ri clu er of antique weapons. e
centre of the apron is carved with a military scene, while the sides depi winding palmette patterns interrupted at
the rounded ends of the table by a head of Hercules wearing the remains of the Nemean lion. Flanking Hercules are
arrays of oak leaves. i garlands of oak leaves drape from the front apron and conne the tops of the legs.
Marie-antoinette’s jewellery case
Returning to the traditional cabinetry styles of the 1640s, the ornamentation of this
jewellery case owned by Marie-Antoinette heralds the Dire oire yle and the subsequent decades.
Ferdinand S werdfeger.
Jewellery case owned by Marie-Antoinette.
Paris, 1787.
Made of oak, mahogany, mother of pearl, reverse glass
painting, ivory, hard-pa e porcelain from Sèvres, gilt and
silvered bronze, iron, green sea marble. H. 2.630; L. 2.072;
W. 0.650 m
Château de Versailles
Exceptionally ornate, this jewellery case uses a wide range of
materials, including decorative reverse glass paintings in the
Pompeian yle by Jean-Jacques Lagrenée the younger, cameos
painted by Jacques-Joseph Degault that were partially replaced
the following year with new cameos painted by Joseph Sauvage
and gilt bronzes designed by Louis-Simon Boizot, ca by
Étienne Martincourt, iselled by Pierre-Philippe omire
and gilded by Jean-Bapti e Godegrand Mellet. e porcelain
fa ory in Sèvres supplied the blue and white medallion di layed in the centre of the apron, as well as the two
beautiful blue vases that once sat on the ret ers of the base and whi disappeared in 1830. e great round gilt-
bronze bas-relief adorning the centre door represents the Arts. e four imposing bronze caryatids aced out along
the façade symbolize the Seasons. On the top of the entire piece Strength, Wisdom and Abundance once wore a royal
crown that has since been lo .
is “diamond e ” ands on eight legs carved into the shape of quivers. It has three doors and numerous drawers.
It is a pi ure-perfe revival of cabinet yles popular long before in the 17
th
century but abandoned since the reign of
Louis XIV.
