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Everything Online is a Website: Information Format
Confusion in Student Citation Behaviors
Katie Greer, Oakland University
Shawn McCann, Oakland University
Abstract
The ability to effectively cite information sources is key to both student avoidance of
plagiarism and the ongoing scholarly conversation. Previous research and experience
indicated that students had significant trouble distinguishing and citing various information
formats when viewed online; items are often cited as websites, and citations are incomplete
or contain erroneous and extraneous information. The authors investigated the prevalence
of these problems at their university, seeking out common patterns in the data to determine
what, if any, information literacy objectives may be useful for future studies and
instructional practice.
Keywords: bibliographic citations; information formats; information literacy
Greer, K. & McCann, S. (2018). Everything Online is a Website: Information Format
Confusion in Student Citation Behaviors. Communications in Information Literacy, 12(2),
150-165.
Copyright for articles published in Communications in Information Literacy is retained by the author(s). Author(s) also extend to Communications in
Information Literacy the right to redistribute this article via other scholarly resources and bibliographic databases. This extension allows the authors'
copyrighted content to be included in some databases that are distributed and maintained by for-profit companies. All other rights of redistribution
are licensed by Communications in Information Literacy under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-
NC-SA 4.0).
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Everything Online is a Website: Information Format
Confusion in Student Citation Behaviors
Introduction
Students must effectively use and cite information sources in order to succeed academically
and to learn to participate in the scholarly conversation. Through experience working with
students in the classroom and online, the authors have noticed students struggling to create
citations for online materials such as journal articles, e-books, and websites. For example,
students often cite a journal retrieved from a database as a website. These observations
combined with previous research (Greer, 2016) informed the development of this study,
which investigates patterns of errors related to citing online sources among undergraduates
in writing-intensive courses at Oakland University. The authors also explore citation
behaviors and students’ proficiency with using the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, Sixth Edition (APA Style). Results of this research may have
implications for information literacy instruction practices, and in particular, the
improvement of citation skills as part of a larger effort to develop mature academic writers
and thinkers.
Literature Review
The literature concerning the formation of students’ citation skills is sparse, but a recent
study noted that students have difficulty with source type identification, cautioning that “if a
student does not understand what type of material s/he is examining, then it is impossible to
use the manual to select the correct citation format” (Park, Mardis, & Ury, 2011, p. 45).
Stevens (2016) reported on a workshop in which students had to identify citation errors,
and found that they struggled with applying citation style examples to their citations.
Additionally, Van Note Chism and Weerakoon (2012) showed that even at the doctoral
level, students become confused with identifying various print and electronic formats. As
the authors reported, “While students most easily recognized books, book chapters, and
journal articles, they had trouble with separately-titled volumes in a series, conference
presentations, and electronic sources ” (p. 33, emphasis added). Before widespread access to
online resources further confused students’ understanding of proper citation creation, St.
Clair and Magrill (1990) noted that students citing books “have lower rates of incomplete
citations than if they cite only journals” (p. 77). Lewis (2008) argued that the new APA Style
conventions for electronic resources would frustrate users who already struggled with basic
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citations, and Kargbo (2010) showed that undergraduates typically have low confidence in
their own citing abilities. Numerous online citation tools exist to mitigate this confusion;
however, they are characterized by high rates of errors (Dahlstrom, 2012; Stevens, 2016;
Van Ullen & Kessler, 2012).
As noted in the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) Information Literacy
Competency Standards for Higher Education (2000) and its Framework for Information Literacy
for Higher Education (2015), correctly identifying, using, and citing information sources are
cornerstones of student success. Additionally, Davis (2003) argued that students’ preference
for using online information creates more need for instruction in citing those materials.
Instruction in citation styles often falls to first-year writing professors and librarians (Mages
& Garson, 2010; Park, Mardis, & Ury, 2011); however, campus writing tutors also assist
with this undertaking, especially when partnered with librarians or subject faculty (Cannon
& Janson, 2009). Sometimes, instructors in specific disciplines take on the responsibility of
teaching proper citation skills. For example, psychology professors Franz and Spitzer (2006)
provided students with citation formatting templates and/or checklists. However, Robinson
and Schlegl (2004), argued that instruction alone does not motivate students to improve
their citation skills; rather, there must be enforceable penalties set by their professors in
order to see changes in behavior.
Methodology
The authors recruited undergraduate students enrolled in writing-intensive courses,
particularly those in first-year writing classes. These courses require the use of APA Style
and are foundational for writing and research.
Students viewed several online resources and provided a citation for each in a Google Forms
survey. This platform is used on campus, so most students were familiar with it and its
intuitive interface. Each question included a screenshot of an online resource, either from
one of the library subscription databases or from the internet, with response fields for
students to enter the citations (see Appendix A). Links to the items were included so that
participants could view and interact with each resource. In addition, each question included
a link to the Purdue OWL APA Style guide.
The survey included materials that students could discover by using the library discovery
system or open web resources: two e-books, two journal articles, and one website.
Participants’ data was automatically entered into a Google Sheets spreadsheet and was
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analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively using that app as well as Google Fusion tables.
The authors reviewed survey responses to ascertain if participants followed APA Style,
identified and used the correct citation format for the information type, included required
elements, and avoided major errors.
Results
Respondents
A total of 63 students participated in the survey. The survey included demographic
questions: sex, major, year in school, comfort level with citations, and preferred citation
style. Of the 63 respondents, 43 were female and 34 were in their first year of school. There
were 24 respondents from Health Sciences, but most major disciplines were represented.
Just over half of the students (35) reported being comfortable with writing citations, and the
majority (51) indicated that APA was their preferred format for citations.
E-book Citations
The survey asked students to write citations for two e-books, both of which were library
resources. For the first e-book, 35% (23) of respondents correctly identified it, but only 13%
(8) created a proper APA citation. For the second e-book, 54% (34) recognized the source as
an e-book, but only 16% (10) formulated a correct citation. The students who correctly
identified the source but did not create a proper citation primarily struggled to identify the
publisher location (Table 1).
Table 1: Proficiency in Identifying Parts of a Citation for an E-book
Part of Citation
E-book #1
Incorrect % (n)
E-book #2
Incorrect % (n)
Author
8.70% (2)
32.53% (11)
Date
8.70% (2)
17.65% (6)
Title
4.35% (1)
0% (0)
Publisher
0% (0)
2.94% (1)
Publisher Location
65.22% (15)
55.88% (19)
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Journal Article Citations
Students fared better with citing the two journal articles accessed through library databases.
For the first journal article example, 43% (27) of respondents correctly identified it, and 67%
(18) of them were able to formulate a proper citation. Additionally, 57% (36) were able to
identify the second source as a journal article, and 64% (23) of them created a correct
citation. The students who were unable to create a correct citation despite correctly
identifying the type of source had difficulty identifying volume information for the journal
and had trouble with other components as well (Table 2).
Table 2: Proficiency with Identifying Parts of a Citation for a Journal Article
Part of Citation
Journal Article #1
Incorrect % (n)
Journal Article #2
Incorrect % (n)
Author
22.22% (2)
30.77% (4)
Date
33.33% (3)
38.46% (5)
Title
22.22% (2)
15.38% (2)
Journal
22.22% (2)
7.69% (1)
Volume
66.67% (6)
46.15% (6)
Pages
33.33% (3)
38.46% (5)
URL
22.22% (2)
38.46% (5)
Website Citations
The survey required students to form a citation for an article on a website. Students proved
adept at this task with 75% (47) of respondents correctly identifying the source and 57% (27)
of them writing a correct APA citation. The respondents who identified the source but
wrote incorrect APA citations did not include a proper URL. Their areas of struggle are
detailed in Table 3.
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Table 3: Proficiency in Identifying Parts of a Citation for a Website
Part of Citation
Website
Incorrect % (n)
Author
35.00% (7)
Date
15.00% (3)
Title
10.00% (2)
URL
50.00% (10)
Discussion
Although the study set out initially to examine the issue of whether students could
effectively identify different information formats in the online environment and
subsequently cite them correctly, the data provide a much richer story. The source type for
each resource was correctly identified 53% of the time, and only 27% of the responses
provided correct APA citations. For each of the survey prompts, students tended to use the
citation format for websites as their default format. For example, 44% of the respondents
cited the first e-book in the survey as a website. None of the respondents used the e-book
citation format for this resource, and only 35% correctly identified it as a book (Table 4).
Table 4: Formats Used to Cite E-books
E-book Cited as
E-book #1
E-book #2
Book
22
19
E-book
0
15
Website
28
22
Other
13
7
The prevalence of the website citation format reflects student reliance on web-based
research. It also suggests that students may not distinguish between information formats
when accessing information online, viewing everything accessed online as a website.
However, based on the authors’ classroom experience, when provided with a physical book
or journal, students do not use the website citation format.
Initially, the authors were surprised that a higher percentage of the respondents (24%)
correctly used the e-book citation format on the second e-book survey prompt. However,
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after scrutiny it became clear that students probably used the database’s citation generator
for these citations. In database-generated citations, there were repeated punctuation or
content errors that were the result of errors in the library database. For example, Figure 1
shows a suspected database-generated citation that has the colon separating the publisher
location and name but is missing the location. Whenever these database-specific errors
appeared in a citation, the researchers noted that the citation was likely created using the
database’s citation generator.
Figure1: Suspected database-generated citation
Other student citation responses appeared to be system-generated, but they did not match
the database’s version. Two students provided the citation in Figure 2. The inclusion of
“ebrary, I” as an author and the out of sequence dates suggest the citation was not typed by
the students. This particular format matches the citation generated by the library’s discovery
tool, which indicates that the participant left the resource page, searched for the title on the
library website, and then used the citation tool. First-year writing courses have a required
library component in which students use the discovery tool and are introduced to this
citation feature. Survey participants may have just received that lesson; however, it could
also reflect an established pattern of behavior, where the student knows this tool, has used it
extensively, and does not branch out beyond what is familiar.
Figure 2: Suspected citation generated by the library discovery tool
For those students who did write their own citations, it proved difficult to choose the
correct citation format. Respondents correctly identified source format only 53% of the
time. However, when the suspected system-generated citations are excluded, that number
falls to only 37.5%. The data indicate that students were either citing sources as websites
(Table 5) or they were perhaps just guessing.
Kowert, R. (2014). Video Games and Social Competence. : Taylor and Francis. Retrieved from
http://www.ebrary.com.huaryu.kl.oakland.edu
Juul, J., & ebrary, I. (2010;2012;2009;). A casual revolution: Reinventing video games and their
players. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
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Table 5: Formats Used to Cite Journal Articles
Journal Article Cited as
Journal Article #1
Journal Article #2
Journal Article
27
36
Website
19
12
Other
17
15
Students who correctly identified the format often were not able to provide a correct APA
citation. Even when students self-identified as being comfortable with the citation style,
they struggled with correct formatting (Table 6).
Table 6: Correct APA Citations by Preferred Citation Style
Citation Type
Preferred = APA
(n=51)
Preferred = Not APA (n=12)
E-book #1
11.8% (6)
16.7% (2)
E-book #2
19.6% (10)
0% (0)
Journal Article #1
31.4% (16)
16.7% (2)
Journal Article #2
39.2% (20)
25% (3)
Website
47.1% (24)
25% (3)
Overall
29.8%
16.7%
Students also had difficulties including the relevant citation elements. In the example in
Figure 3, the student included the requisite title, author, and date information needed for an
e-book citation, but then added the Library of Congress call number plus an extra string of
characters labeled “ISO.” Students also included other extraneous information, such as page
counts and ISBNs. They also misidentified or left out the publisher and place of publication
and sometimes inverted the authors’ names. The student who wrote the citation in Figure 4,
for example, provided the publisher, but left off the location information.
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Figure 3: E-book citation with added elements
Figure 4: E-book citation with missing element
The misidentification or exclusion of portions of the required citation continued through
the journal article citation data. The journal title proved to be problematic. In Figure 5, the
student included the database title in place of the journal title or perhaps added it because
the they did not know which citation format to use. The authors theorize that the
prominent display of a database logo, typically in the upper-left corner of the user interface,
causes confusion for users already struggling to navigate many types of information accessed
online.
Figure 5: Journal article citation with misidentified journal title
Although students preferred to cite sources as websites, the data show that students do not
understand URLs. When required to provide a resource URL, as in the website citation
format, many students provided the redirect link from the survey form (see Figure 6).
Respondents also provided links that included the library’s proxy server information. One
student appeared to have Googled the e-book title in order to come up with a URL that
redirects to a website selling the item (see Figure 7). The responses also suggest that
students typically copy and paste this component of the citation without any evaluation of
the URL itself (e.g., whether it was a stable link or reflected the correct information). In
Figure 8, the student copied and pasted the link from the Purdue OWL guide to APA style
instead of the database link.
Juul J., (2012 February) A Casual Revolution: Reinventing Video Games and Their Players
ISO:Gv1469.34.P79-JBB2009eb
Juul, Jesper(2012) A Casual Revolution : Reinventing Video Games and Their Players. The MIT
Press
Merchant, G. (2004, July). What Video Games Have to Teach us about Learning and Literacy. In
Proquest.
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Figure 6: Website citation with survey re-direct link as URL
Figure 7: E-book citation with Googled URL
Figure 8: Journal article citation with Purdue OWL as URL
Students also struggled with understanding what a DOI is, how to find it, and how
to use it in a citation. Students who attempted to include a DOI often confused it with an
ISBN or other number string, and/or mislabeled it, as in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Citation with DOI confused with ISBN
Conclusion
The results of this study have important implications for information literacy instruction.
The data indicates that students do not understand information sources when they conduct
research online. All online information formats appeared to be relegated to website status by
Fitzpatrick, A., (2016, July 11). How 'Pokemon Go' Took Over the World. Retrieved from
https://www.google.com/url?q=http://time.com/4400791/pokemon-go-iphone-android-
nintendo/?iid%3Dsr-link2&sa=D&ust=1477502067737000
&usg=AFQjCNE54n_xAU1PiY--Zmd_tfVbtvUnug
[emphasis in URL added]
Kowert, R. (n.d.). Video Games and Social Competence. Retrieved November 14, 2016, from
https://www.vitalsource.com/products/video-games-and-social-competence-rachel-kowert-
v9781317620136
Merchant, G. (2004, July). What Video Games Have to Teach us about Learning and Literacy./
New Literacies: Changing Knowledge and Classroom Learning. Retrieved from
owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/.
Kowert, R. (2014). Video games and social competence. Routledge advances in game studies. Do.
9781138804265
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the majority of students and viewed as equally valid sources. Librarians need to carefully
evaluate information literacy outcomes related to these skills. The data indicate that IL
sessions focus on search strategies without ensuring that students can critically evaluate
their results. When teaching students to read a record, librarians could include a discussion
about what the proper citation for the item would be, how to locate its various components,
and the similarities and differences between print and electronic formats.
Of significance was the revelation that the students, belying their digital native status, did
not appear to be able to read URLs, a critical skill for those who use, share, and cite websites
and other online content. The purpose of a citation—to give readers the ability to verify or
read the information cited on their own—is lost when the information cited cannot be
traced back to its source. This apparent lack of skill poses a challenge for librarians in a one-
shot session because URL literacy cannot be addressed adequately as a smaller portion of an
information literacy lesson. However, it could be taught effectively using instructional
technology, such as a web tutorial, a topical guide, or as an interactive lesson housed within
a learning management system.
The results also merit further study in order to verify some of the behaviors that the data
suggest. The authors’ next step is to test the effectiveness of instructional interventions to
address the missing skill sets. One of the library’s most critical roles remains supporting
students in the task of understanding and properly using information, and each step taken
to do this more effectively benefits the university community.
References
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Appendix
Survey Screenshots
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COMMUNICATIONS IN INFORMATION LITERACY | VOL. 12, NO. 2, 2018
Communications in Information Literacy, Vol. 12, Iss. 2 [2018], Art. 6
https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/comminfolit/vol12/iss2/6
DOI: 10.15760/comminfolit.2018.12.2.6
