JULY 2022
DITCHING
LIGHT AIRCRAFT ON WATER
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SS21
The purpose of this leaflet is to provide guidance to GA pilots regarding ditching
light aircraft on water. It is primarily focused on the aeroplane pilot; although
much will be applicable to helicopters. Ditching is a deliberate emergency
landing on water, it is not an uncontrolled impact.
Ditching events beyond coastal waters are rare, but experience suggests that
if the aircraft impacts the water under control, the chance of survival is high.
There does not appear to be a statistical difference between high and low wing
aeroplanes.
Despite most impacts being survivable, occupants sometimes drown after
failing to vacate the aircraft or succumb to cold shock or hypothermia. It is
therefore important to consider post impact escape and survival.
YOUR SAFETY SENSE LEAFLET FOR:
DITCHING
2
CAA / July 2022
Safety Sense / 21 / Ditching
Sea temperatures will have a significant impact
on survival times. The temperature of the sea
around the UK will lag seasonal changes in the
outside air temperature, so is normally warmest
in September. The sea is coldest towards the
end of the winter in March. The sea temperature
in the winter will be around 8
o
C or less and
around 16
o
C by mid-summer. The North Sea and
eastern regions of the Channel tend to be colder
than areas to the southwest.
When planning to fly over a significant body of
water, consider the likely sea conditions below.
High winds, rain, poor visibility and heavy swell
will reduce the chances of a successful ditching
and rescue. The Met Office Shipping Forecast
is a good indicator of sea state conditions. An
explanation of the forecast and the ‘Beaufort
Scale’ can be found on the Met Office website.
DITCHING
Sea conditions
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Likely survival time - person of average body mass without liferaft
INABILITY TO PERFORM TASKS WILL OCCUR LONG BEFORE DEATH
Survival suit with
long cotton underwear,
trousers, shirt
& heavy pullover
Average
winter
Average
summer
Time (hours)
Sea temperatures around UK
4
3
2
1
0ºC 5ºC 10ºC 15ºC
Lightweight summer
clothing
Death likely due to
cold shock before onset
of hypothermia
Even if you carry a life raft, consider the survival
times associated with being in the water before
rescue – in some ditchings, the raft is lost or
difficult to enter due to heavy swell.
In low sea temperatures, cold shock can cause
drowning and sometimes heart failure. This can
happen in a matter of minutes. Cold shock may
cause a gasp reflex, hyperventilation and an
increase in blood pressure. These responses will
likely diminish after several minutes if the head
can be kept above water and breathing can be
controlled.
Drowning can also be caused by ‘swimming
failure’, whereby the body’s reaction to the cold
water is to restrict blood flow to the extremities.
Even strong swimmers will lose the ability to
move their limbs effectively after a short period
of time and the swimming action will become
inefficient. This can result in the body adopting a
more vertical position in the water, at which point
the swimmer may panic and sink.
If in cold water for an extended period, the main
threat is hypothermia caused by a decrease in
body core temperature.
Contact with cold water is usually unavoidable
in a ditching and the effect can be mitigated by
wearing a survival suit. Removing yourself from
the water and into a life raft will significantly
extend the period before hypothermia sets in,
but it may not be possible if the body has already
succumbed to cold shock.
Survival times
DITCHING
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Survival Equipment
DITCHING
Regulations
Part-NCO (Part-21 aircraft) and the Air Navigation Order (non-Part-21 aircraft) contain equipment
requirements for flight over water. Lifejackets for all onboard are required when in an aircraft beyond
gliding range of land, or if in the opinion of the pilot in command, the planned flight path during takeoff
or landing is near water, such that a ditching may occur in the event of an emergency. You should
know your aircraft’s gliding or autorotation range.
When flying more than
30 minutes or 50 NM
from land (whichever is
less), the pilot in command
is required to assess
the survival equipment
necessary to carrying on
the flight.
Such an assessment
should consider the sea
state and temperature,
weather conditions,
distance from land and the
availability of search and
research services.
Equipment that may be deemed necessary could include distress signals, such as lights or flares, life
rafts for all persons onboard and any life-saving equipment such as drinking water or first aid kits.
After reviewing this leaflet and assessing the flight, it is recommended to determine a
list of items you feel are appropriate – the regulations do not specify all the detail, so a
degree of personal judgement is required.
The UK AIP GEN 3.6 details Search and Rescue provision in the UK. GEN 3.6 is the normal ICAO
assigned AIP section for Search and Rescue provision and will be detailed there by most states.
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DITCHING - SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT
Life Jackets
Life jacket selection
Only use lifejackets intended for use in light
aircraft. Lifejackets should be designed for
constant wear and have a protective covering
over the uninflated buoyancy chambers. A
suitable lifejacket provides around 150 newtons
of buoyancy, which should be enough to keep an
unconscious person afloat with the head above
water. Check suitability for children or infants,
you will likely need a lifejacket or floatation
device designed for a smaller body size.
Airline style jackets are only suitable for occasional
use – when worn uninflated they lack any
protection from accidental tearing or other damage
from constant wear. Lifejackets intended for
marine use often inflate automatically on contact
with water – this feature is unsuitable in an aviation
environment since the jacket may inflate in the
aircraft and make it impossible to escape.
Non-inflating ‘buoyancy aids’ used for leisure
boating or similar are also unsuitable – the passive
buoyancy will impede exit but will not usually be
sufficient to keep an unconscious person floating
with the head held above the water.
It is recommended that lifejackets have the
following features:
> Light;
> Whistle;
> Crotch strap;
> Spray hood; and
> Reflective markings
Lifejackets should be serviced annually by a
competent organisation – the original vendor of
the jackets should be able to advise on this.
Wearing the life jacket
In a single engine piston aircraft, all occupants
should wear their lifejackets in flight. The
lifejacket should normally be donned prior to
entry into the aircraft and seatbelts should be
fastened over the jacket.
In the case of twin engine aircraft, carriage
under the seats or other accessible location is
acceptable but consider how practical it will be
to don lifejackets in a timely fashion during an
emergency. Passengers must briefed on how to
don lifejackets inside the aircraft and ensure they
will not become entangled in the seatbelts.
Consider that some ditchings, including with
multi-engine aircraft, have occurred due to fuel
starvation, fire, control difficulties or factors aside
from engine failure.
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DITCHING - SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT
Life rafts
Life raft selection
Life rafts should be designed for aviation use.
The inflation cylinder for the raft should be
designed to vent into the air (rather than inflate)
in the event of a malfunction
1
. Inflation of the raft
inside the cabin could be very dangerous.
It is recommended that the life raft has a canopy
to reduce the effects of exposure. An integral
canopy that erects itself on inflation is best and
may make it easier to right the raft if it inflates
upside down, since the canopy will prevent it
from completely inverting in the water. Many
life rafts also include some survival equipment
inside, which is useful since it does not need to
be carried separately – it should be listed in the
documentation with the raft.
A boarding aid such as a rope ladder at the
entrance will make it easier to climb in. Ensure
the raft occupancy capacity is sufficient for the
number of occupants on the aircraft.
As with lifejackets, rafts should be serviced
annually, or as directed by the manufacture’s
recommendations.
A good quality raft is quite expensive, so some
companies offer short or long-term hire, which may
be more cost effective for the occasional user.
Carriage of the raft
If crossing any significant body of water, it is
strongly recommended to carry a life raft, in
addition to wearing life jackets. A raft should allow
the survivors of a ditching to remove themselves
from the cold water, which could significantly
improve the likelihood of survival.
When carrying the life raft in the aircraft, secure
it (for example with a seatbelt) in an accessible
location where it will not interfere with the controls.
Include it in any weight and balance calculations –
some rafts weigh more than 15 kgs.
1
It is still wise to consider the event of an accidental inflation in the cabin, for example puncturing it with a knife or other sharp object may be necessary
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DITCHING - SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT
Survival Suit
A survival or immersion suit designed for aviation
use will significantly improve survival prospects in
cold waters. Whilst some pilots may feel that this
level of protection is ‘over the top’ for a cross-
Channel flight, there have been cases where
lives have been saved by the wearing of such
clothing, particularly during periods of lower sea
temperatures.
If the survival suit used is an uninsulated ‘dry suit’,
it will keep the water out, but to be fully effective
from the cold you will need to wear warm clothing
underneath to create layers of air that trap your
body heat.
Even if you carry a raft, it may be lost or damaged
in the ditching. Experience has shown that it is
often difficult to enter a raft during high winds and
heavy swell. The raft may also be lost or damaged
in the impact, so wearing a survival suit is still wise
precaution.
Clothing
If a survival suit is not worn, high insulation
clothing which traps air can still improve
chances of survival in the water. Woollen
clothing may be cumbersome when wet, but it
retains around 50% of its insulating properties
compared to wet cotton which is only 10% of
its dry insulation. Warm headwear will prevent
body heat escaping from your head.
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DITCHING - SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT
It has been a requirement since 25th August 2016
for a Part-21 aircraft to have an emergency locator
beacon (ELT) fitted. For aircraft fitted with up to six
passenger seats, a portable locator beacon (PLB)
may be carried instead, although for overwater
flights it is recommended to have both devices.
The PLB should have a GNSS receiver and
broadcast on both 406 MHz and 121.5 MHz. The
PLB must be registered with the appropriate
authority. Features such as buoyancy are also
recommended.
Most fitted ELTs are activated on impact, although
it may be possible to manually active prior to
ditching. Some fixed ELTs will also activate
on contact with water. You should check the
specification fitted to your aircraft. For PLBs, be
familiar with the operation of your device and keep
it readily accessible during flight. Comply with any
manufacturer instructions for testing and servicing.
Survival accessories
Ditching bag
There are no hard rules in terms of what should be carried, but items such as a portable
VHF radio, flares, high power strobe, first aid kit, knife, signalling mirror, sea sickness
tablets, water and small amounts of high energy food should be considered.
It is a good idea to carry a waterproof bag that contains items such as the PLB, your
phone and the survival equipment. Brief passengers on its location and contents.
ELT or PLB
ELT
PLB
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Preparation
DITCHING
You may have all the right equipment, but you need to know how to use it effectively and brief all
occupants on what to do in the event of a ditching. The equipment also needs to be serviceable and
accessible for use.
Passenger Briefing
Part-NCO, and the Air Navigation Order for non-Part-21 aircraft, require that passengers
are briefed on the safety and emergency procedures for the flight. Include all normal
items such as operation of doors and seatbelts (see SSL 02, Care of Passengers).
For flights over water also cover:
> Use of lifejackets, including to only inflate once outside the aircraft;
> Location and use of the life raft. Allocate someone to be responsible
for taking the life raft from the aircraft in a ditching;
> Use of the ELT/PLB;
> Preparation for impact, such as brace position, tightening
seatbelts, removing headsets and stowing eyeglasses;
> The order in which people should evacuate the aircraft;
> Reference points on the aircraft’s structure to reach for when exiting
the aircraft as well as any features which might impede exit;
> The most effective way of opening doors if submerged; and
> Actions when clear of the aircraft.
Ditching courses
Flight Planning
If you fly over water often, you should consider attending a ditching survival course.
In a safe environment you will be taught the correct operation of lifejackets, methods
of getting into life-rafts and the problems you might encounter after a ditching. Some
specialist companies have light aircraft shaped ‘dunkers’ to practise underwater escapes.
The cold and dark of a submerged aircraft is a very disorientating environment, so having had
some practice, your chances of survival will be improved should the worst ever happen.
Fly as high as possible, this will give you more time in a ditching and may allow you to
get closer to land. Radio reception will also be better. Consider taking a longer route to
avoid exposure to a long water crossing. As you approach the sea, check the engine
instruments to ensure everything is normal.
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Surviving a Ditching
DITCHING
Maintaining Control
Aircraft ditch for various reasons, it may be an
engine failure, but there could be other factors
such as fire.
Should the worst happen, remember to
keep flying the aircraft. As per any emergency
situation, Aviate, Navigate and Communicate,
in that order.
Carry out any emergency procedures from the
aircraft flight manual that may recover the situation,
such as changing fuel tank or turning the fuel pump
on. A common cause of ditching is fuel starvation,
but often the fuel system was not correctly
configured and there was still usable fuel onboard.
Once you have established you are in a ditching
scenario, fly at best glide speed (if applicable) and
turn towards the nearest coastline. If you are far
from land, look for shipping. Small to medium sized
vessels are preferable, large ships may not be able
to stop in proximity to the ditching point and will be
of limited assistance. If ditching near a ship, ahead
but to the side of their path is best.
With the aircraft under control, transmit a Mayday
call on the active frequency, or 121.5 MHz if you
are not in contact with ATC. Set transponder code
7700. Give your situation, position and intentions.
Landing technique
The swell direction is normally more important than wind direction when planning a ditching. Swell
refers to the parallel lines of waves in the sea, which will typically be moving in the same direction.
Below 2,000 ft, the swell direction should be apparent. Aim to touch down parallel to the line of the
swell, attempting to land along the crest of the wave or slightly behind it.
The table below describes sea states and how to approach them:
Wind Speed Appearance of Sea Effect on Ditching
0-6 knots
(Beaufort 0-2)
Glassy calm to small ribbles. Height very difficult to judge above
surface. Ditch parallel to swell.
7-10 knots
(Beaufort 3)
Small waves; few if any white caps. Ditch parallel to swell.
11-21 knots
(Beaufort 4-5)
Larger waves with many white
caps.
Use headwind component, but still
ditch along general line of swell.
22-33 knots
(Beaufort 6-7)
Medium - large waves, some foam
crests, numerous white caps.
Ditch into wind on crest or
downslope of swell.
34 knots & above
(Beaufort 8+)
Large waves, streaks of foam,
waves crests forming spindrift.
Ditch into wind on crest or
downslope of swell. Avoid at all
costs ditching into the face of the
rising swell.
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DITCHING - SURVIVING A DITCHING
High Winds
If you can see spray and spume on the surface,
then the surface wind is strong. In this case it
is probably better to land into wind, rather than
along the swell. Winds of 35 to 40 kt are generally
associated with spray blowing like steam across
waves and in these cases the waves could be
10 ft (3m) or more in height. Aim for the crest or
failing that, into the downslope. You need to avoid
being hit by a wave from above.
Preparing for impact
Review with your passengers the key points
of the landing and egress. Ensure seat belts
are tight. Headsets should be removed before
touchdown. Passengers without an upper body
restraint should adopt the brace position just
prior to impact. Ensure all survival equipment is
accessible. Consider unlatching a door to reduce
the risk of it becoming jammed.
Landing Technique
The Aircraft Flight Manual/Pilot’s Operating
Handbook may provide suitable guidance, if the
AFM conflicts with statements in this leaflet,
follow the AFM.
The force of impact will be high so ditch as
slowly as possible whilst maintaining control.
Land tail down at the lowest possible forward
speed, but do not stall into the water. It is
important to keep the wings level, if a wing tip
catches the water first the aircraft will likely
spin or cartwheel. The use of flap is advisable to
minimise the touchdown speed.
It may be difficult to judge your height above
the water, for example if the sea is calm with a
‘glassy’ appearance or if visibility is poor. In this
case, once at low level reduce speed below best
glide but keep a margin above the stall – this will
minimise the aircraft’s sink rate while retaining
control. Hold the descent attitude until impact.
If some power is available from the engine,
use it to reduce the descent rate. Some AFMs
recommend always using a steady sink descent,
rather than flaring, to avoid misjudging the height
of the water.
There will likely be several ‘skips’ along the
top of the water before the main impact. The
deceleration will be very harsh and the nose will
tip downwards. Water will rush over the nose
and windscreen. It may smash the windscreen,
letting water in rapidly and giving the impression
of the aircraft sinking.
Landing technique (continued)
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DITCHING - SURVIVING A DITCHING
The natural buoyancy of the uninflated raft may
make it hard to manoeuvre out of the aircraft. Keep
hold of it by the cord, but do not inflate the raft
immediately – doing so before being prepared will
result in it blowing away.
Once inflated, currents and wind will immediately
try to move the raft away from you and may invert
it. If practical, the person with the raft should hold
onto the aircraft when inflating it, so as not to be
dragged away.
Check the manufacturer’s recommendations
for securing the raft while boarding – tying it to
someone’s belt or lifejacket harness is one option
but if the aircraft is still afloat, it may be more
effective to initially tie it to a wing strut or exterior
handle. Most rafts have a tear patch at the cord
attachment point that should break off to prevent
the sinking aircraft dragging it down.
If the sea state allows, getting into the raft by
standing on the wing or other part of the aircraft will
normally be easier than from the water. Position
the raft near to the aircraft and take account of the
wind direction – you do not want the raft blowing
towards you or the aircraft structure (which may
damage it), but if you position it downwind it may
blow away and be harder to enter.
Vacating the aircraft
Inflating the life raft
With a high-wing aircraft, it may be necessary
to wait until the cabin has filled with water
before it is possible to open the doors – only
wait for water to enter as a last resort though.
If you cannot open the doors, open or kick out
windows before you are underwater. Be aware
of any panels designed to be pushed out in an
emergency. Keeping you seatbelt fastened after
the initial impact may allow you to apply more
force to open the doors and windows.
The shock of cold water may adversely affect
everyone’s actions. Therefore, a pre-flight
passenger briefing which emphasises interior
reference points and the agreed order in which
to vacate the aircraft is vital. Do not inflate
lifejackets inside the aircraft, inflate them as
soon as you are outside.
Consider leaving the master switch and the
anti-collision beacon or strobes on. If the aircraft
floats for a while or sinks in shallow water, the
lights may continue operating and provide some
light and indication of your position. Exit the
aircraft as swiftly as possible, remembering to
take the raft and ditching bag if carried.
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Dealing with a capsized raft
DITCHING - INFLATING THE LIFE RAFT
It is possible that the raft will inflate upside down
or that the wind will blow it over. Should you need
to turn it upright, position yourself downwind of
the raft.
If it is floating partially on one side, position yourself
by the underside that is resting in the water and
move the raft so that the wind is blowing in the
same direction as you want to tip it.
Wind
Alternatively, standing on the aircraft may allow you to reach the high side of the inverted raft and pull it over.
The inflation cylinder is normally attached on the
bottom of the raft or to the side of the base.
Rotate the raft such that the cylinder is at the low
point next to you. Push down at this point and grab
any righting straps on the underside of the the raft.
Pull the high side down towards the water. The
weight of the cylinder and the wind should help
turn it over. As it falls towards you move out of the
way and grab hold of the side to prevent it floating
away.
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DITCHING - INFLATING THE LIFE RAFT
Entering the raft
The raft should have a recommended entry point
and sometimes a rope ladder to assist entry.
Remove any items such as high heeled shoes that
may damage the raft. If you must enter the water
before climbing into the raft, hold the bottom of
your lifejacket with one hand and place the other
hand over your mouth and nose to reduce the
intake of cold water.
Assisting others
Some survivors may struggle to climb into the
life raft from the water. The most physically able
survivors may need to enter the raft first to assist
others with entering.
If someone is struggling to climb in, position them
with their back against the entrance point and then
grip them under the armpits from behind (not by
the arms) – this will be easier with two people in
the raft to lift them. Anyone else in the raft should
move to the opposite side to the entrance, to
provide balance. Initially the person in the water
should be pushed down to create a resistance
against the buoyancy of their inflated lifejacket.
Then pull them sharply back up again
– the buoyancy should give a spring effect
to aid lifting them in.
As more people enter the raft, they should
distribute themselves around the perimeter to
stabilise it most effectively.
Securing the raft
Once everyone is aboard the life raft, there may be
some additional actions to complete. You may need
to separately inflate the floor, buoyancy chambers
and trail the drogue or sea anchor. A sea anchor is
designed to stop the raft drifting.
If not already in place from the inflation, erect
the canopy to protect the occupants from the
wind and spray.
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Waiting for rescue
DITCHING
Remove as much water from the raft as possible. Try to remove water from clothes by
wringing them out. If available, take sea sickness tablets immediately to reduce the risk
of vomiting. The raft may have these in the survival equipment pouch. In the confines
of the raft on a rough sea, survivors will likely feel nauseous and vomiting will cause
the loss of vital fluids and energy. Due to the salt content, do not drink sea water, it will
accelerate dehydration.
Deploy your PLB. Follow any instructions such as keeping the aerial vertical with a clear
view of the sky - if necessary position the aerial through a gap in canopy. If your phone
has survived the ditching and you are within network coverage, diall 999 (in the UK)
and ask for the coastguard. With marginal signal, a text message to a friend or family
member may also work.
Use any visual signalling equipment you have, but do not waste battery power or
flares by setting them off when there is no one to observe them. However, if you have
ditched in a busy area of the Channel for example, visual signals may be spotted quite
soon. Flares should be held at arm’s length, outside and pointing away from the life raft
as they often leave hot deposits. If you have any gloves or other protection, use them to
protect your hands.
Water dye that makes the raft’s location more visible from the air may last around three
hours, or less in rough seas, so do not deploy it immediately. If the sun is visible, a
heliograph mirror can create a strong visual signal.
Assuming you were able to give an accurate location to ATC prior to ditching, search and
rescue should be able to find you, but it could still take hours before you are lifted from
the water. Some rafts will have a small aperture in the cover that can be opened to look
out and show signals, so take it in turns to conduct a watch for rescuers.
PLB
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Without a raft
DITCHING
Conserving Heat
The most critical areas of the body for heat loss are
the head, sides of the chest and the groin region.
If the lifejacket has one, cover your head with the
spray hood to reduce the risk of drowning.
Do not swim to keep warm. The increase in blood
circulation in the arms, legs and skin will just
transfer more heat to the cold water.
In a group of survivors, tie yourselves to each other
and huddle with the sides of your chests and lower
bodies pressed together. If there are children,
sandwich them within the middle of the group for
extra protection.
Without a life jacket
If you end up in the water without a lifejacket,
try to find some debris such as a seat cushion or
luggage that will give buoyancy. Keeping afloat
without anything to provide buoyancy will be
exhausting. Even an inflated plastic bag may be
better than nothing.
Lone survivor
A lone survivor should adopt the ‘HELP’ position
(Heat Escaping Lessening Posture). This position
will increase your survival time. Hold the inner
sides of your arms in contact with the side of the
chest. Hold your thighs together and raise them
slightly to protect the groin region.
Attracting attention
Survivors in the water can be difficult to spot.
When you see a search aircraft or nearby ship,
signal with any devices you may have such as
lights, flares or a heliograph mirror. Even splashing
the water with your arms may attract attention
as disturbed water may reflect off the beam of
a search light. A whistle is more effective than
shouting.
If you are without a raft or it is unusable for some reason, this decreases the chances of survival, but do
not give up hope – the will to survive is the most powerful force to prolong life.
Tie important survival items such as the PLB to someone’s life jacket. Try and keep the aerial of the PLB
vertical. The cold will cause restriction of movement very quickly, so perform any manual tasks while you
are still able.
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The rescue
DITCHING
When help arrives, stay where you are and follow any instructions from the rescuer. Do not try to do things
on your own initiative.
If a helicopter is making the rescue, wait for instructions from the winchman. For example, do not reach
out and touch the winch cable without being instructed to. The winchman will normally descend on the
cable to supervise the winch. When being winched up, do not touch the cable or the helicopter, the crew
will manoeuvrer you up and inside as required.
If possible, deactivate your PLB once safely onboard the helicopter or rescue boat. The PLB signal on
121.5 MHz will often be heard by commercial aircraft monitoring the frequency, who may report it to ATC,
so deactivating it may avoid any unnecessary confusion.
Survival Equipment
Always wear lifejackets over water
Carry a Personal Locator Beacon (PLB)
Consider equipment such as a life raft and survival suits
Preparation
Minimise the time over water
Consider the weather and sea conditions
Brief your passengers
The Ditching
Know your aircraft’s technique
Declare an emergency
Have an escape plan
Surviving at sea
Know how to use your equipment
Activate your PLB
Consider cold water survival
SUMMARY
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