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Beyond the Journal

•

Young Children

on the Web • November 2006

Building

Social

Skills

ARLY

EDUCATORS

REPORT

that one of their biggest challenges is supporting

young children who have problem behavior beyond what might be expected

(Buscemi et al. 1995; Hemmeter, Corso, & Cheatham 2005). Some children

engage in problem behavior that is typical of a particular stage of develop-

ment as they build relationships with peers and adults and learn to navigate

the classroom environment. For example, a toddler might grab a cracker

from another child’s plate because she is still learning to use words to ask

for what she wants or needs. What troubles teachers is how to meet the

needs of children who have persistent problem behavior that does not

respond to positive guidance or prevention practices. The extent of this

problem is highlighted by recent reports on the rates of expulsion of chil-

dren from preschool programs (Gilliam 2005).

The teaching pyramid

The teaching pyramid model (Fox et

al. 2003) describes a primary level of

universal practices—classroom

preventive practices that pro-

mote the social and emotional

development of all children—

built on a foundation of

positive relationships;

secondary interventions

that address specific

social and emotional

learning needs of

children at risk for

challenging behavior;

and development of individualized interventions (tertiary level) for children

with persistent problem behavior (see the diagram “The Teaching Pyra-

mid”). The model is explained more fully in “The Teaching Pyramid: A Model

“You Got It!”

Teaching Social and

Emotional Skills

Lise Fox and Rochelle Harper Lentini

Lise Fox, PhD, is a professor in the

Department of Child and Family Studies

of the Louis de la Parte Florida Mental

Health Institute of the University of South

Florida in Tampa. She conducts research

and training and develops support

programs focused on young children with

challenging behavior.

Rochelle Harper Lentini, MEd, is a

faculty member in the Department of

Child and Family Studies of the Louis de

la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute.

She provides training and technical

assistance to early educators and fami-

lies on supporting young children with

challenging behavior and promoting

social and emotional competence.

Development of this article was sup-

ported by the Center for Evidence-Based

Practice: Young Children with Challeng-

ing Behavior (Office of Special Education

Programs, U.S. Department of Educa-

tion, Cooperative Agreement

#H324Z010001) and the Center on the

Social and Emotional Foundations for

Early Learning (Administration for Chil-

dren and Families, U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services, Cooperative

Agreement #90YD0119/01).

Teaching Pyramid diagram adapted

from L. Fox, G. Dunlap, M.L. Hemmeter,

G.E. Joseph, & P.S. Strain, “The Teach-

ing Pyramid: A Model for Supporting

Social Competence and Preventing

Challenging Behavior in Young Children,”

Young Children 58 (July 2003): 49.

Photos courtesy of the authors. Illus-

tration © Adjoa Burrowes.

Tertiary

Level

The Teaching Pyramid

Secondary

Level

Intensive

Individual

Interventions

Social and Emotional

Teaching Strategies

Primary

Level

Positive Relationships with Children,

Families, and Colleagues

Classroom Preventive practices

Beyond the Journal

•

Young Children

on the Web • November 2006

Building

Social

Skills

for Supporting Social Competence and

Reinventing Challenging Behavior in

Young Children,” in the July 2003 issue

of Young Children.

The foundation for universal prac-

tices begins with nurturing and re-

sponsive caregiving that supports

children in developing a positive sense

of self and in engaging in relationships

with others. At this level, teachers

focus on their relationships with

children and families. Universal class-

room practices include developmentally appropriate, child-centered classroom

environments that promote children’s developing independence, successful inter-

actions, and engagement in learning. While universal practices may be enough to

promote the development of social competence in the majority of children in the

classroom, teachers may find that there are children whose lack of social and

emotional skills or whose challenging behavior requires more focused attention.

In this article we look at the secondary level of the teaching pyramid, which

emphasizes planned instruction on specific social and emotional skills for children

at risk for developing more challenging behavior, such as severe aggression, prop-

erty destruction, noncompliance, or withdrawal. Children who may be considered

at risk for challenging behavior are persistently noncompliant, have difficulty

regulating their emotions, do not easily form relationships with adults and other

children, have difficulty engaging in learning activities, and are perceived by teach-

ers as being likely to develop more intractable behavior problems.

Research shows that when educators teach children the key skills they need to

understand their emotions and the emotions of others, handle conflicts, problem

solve, and develop relationships with peers, their problem behavior decreases and

their social skills improve (Joseph & Strain 2003). Emphasis on teaching social

skills is just one component of multiple strategies to support a child at risk for

challenging behavior. Additional critical strategies include collaborating with the

family; addressing the child’s physical and mental health needs; and offering the

support of specialists and other resources to address the child or family’s indi-

vidual needs.

Reframing problem behavior

The teaching pyramid model guides teachers to view a child’s problem behavior

as serving a purpose for that child. Some children may use problem behavior

instead of socially conventional and appropriate behavior to avoid or join interac-

tions and activities, obtain or avoid attention, and obtain objects. For example, a

child who wants another child’s toy may hit the other child instead of asking to

have a turn with the toy. Other children may use problem behavior to express their

disappointment or anger to the teacher, rather than asking for help or sharing

their feelings with words. For example, a child may throw toys or destroy materials

when frustrated rather than asking a teacher for help.

Reasons for challenging behavior

Children may use problem behavior to get their needs met for a variety of rea-

sons. For example, a child may have language development problems, social-

emotional delays, difficulties with peer interactions, or developmental disabilities;

Teachers may find

that there are

children whose

lack of social and

emotional skills or

whose challenging

behavior requires

more focused

attention.

Beyond the Journal

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Young Children

on the Web • November 2006

Building

Social

Skills

she may have experienced neglect or trauma; or she may simply have not had

opportunities to learn appropriate social or communication skills before entering

preschool.

When teachers view challenging behavior as actions children use to get their

needs met, they can reframe problem behavior as a skill-learning or skill-fluency

issue. Skill fluency refers to a child’s ability to use a skill consistently and indepen-

dently. Children with problem behavior may not have appropriate social or communi-

cation skills or may not use those skills well in a variety of situations. Reframing

problem behavior as a skill-instruction issue opens the door to the development of

effective strategies teachers can implement in the classroom: if young children

with problem behavior are missing key social and communication skills, then a

next step is to teach them those skills!

A skill-learning issue

Many skills are important in children’s development of relationships with adults

and peers. Skills help children learn self-regulation (ability to respond appropri-

ately to anxiety, distress, or uncomfortable sensations) and how to problem solve

(see “Social and Emotional Skills to Teach,” left). Young children at risk for chal-

lenging behavior (children at the secondary intervention level) may not be fluent

in or have the ability to use these skills. The teaching pyramid model encourages

early educators to teach children these skills systematically, using planned proce-

dures within developmentally appropriate activities and with sufficient intensity to

ensure that children learn the skills quickly and can use them when needed (Grisham-

Brown, Hemmeter, & Pretti-Frontczak 2005).

Teaching social skills

In thinking about how to teach social skills systematically, teachers need to be

aware of the three stages of learning (Bailey & Wolery 1992) (see “Stages of Learn-

ing,” p. 4). The first stage is skill acquisition—the skill is introduced to the child;

the second stage is fluency—the child has learned the skill and can use it easily;

and the final stage of learning is skill maintenance and generalization—the child

can use the skill over time and in new situations. In this article, we present strate-

gies for addressing each stage of learning in the instruction of social skills.

Introducing a new skill: Show-and-tell

Explain the new skill. When you first teach a

child a social or emotional skill, it is important to

ensure that you have explained the skill in concrete

terms so the child understands what the skill is and

when to use it. Children who have social develop-

ment challenges may find the nuances of social

behavior difficult to interpret. Thus, it is important

to identify the skill (“ask to take a turn”), demon-

strate or identify when it is used (“Watch Emily ask

to play with the water wheel”), and link the idea or

concept to other skills the child has (“When you see

your friends playing with a toy you want, you can

watch them play, you can wait for a turn, or you can

ask them for a turn”).

Social and

Emotional Skills

to Teach

• Following rules, routines,

and directions

• Identifying feelings in

oneself and others

• Controlling anger and

impulses

• Problem solving

• Suggesting play themes

and activities to peers

• Sharing toys and other

materials

• Taking turns

• Helping adults and peers

• Giving compliments

• Understanding how and

when to apologize

• Expressing empathy with

others’ feelings

• Recognizing that anger

can interfere with problem

solving

• Learning how to recognize

anger in oneself and others

• Learning how to calm

down

• Understanding appropri-

ate ways to express anger

It is important to

identify the skill,

demonstrate or

identify when it is

used, and link the

idea or concept to

other skills the

child has.

Beyond the Journal

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Young Children

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Building

Social

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Demonstrate it. For many children, it is helpful to provide both a positive

example of someone using a skill and an example in which the skill is not

used. For example, you may ask children to demonstrate the wrong way to

ask for a turn and the correct way to ask for a turn. In this manner, children

can practice under a teacher’s guidance and receive additional information

about how the skill is appropriately used.

Give positive feedback. When children first learn a new skill, they need

feedback and specific encouragement on their efforts to use the skill. The

importance of feedback cannot be overstated! Think, for example, about a

time when you learned something new—such as a language, a sport, or a

craft. The instructor most likely gave you feedback: “That’s right, you did it”

or “That looks good, I think you are getting it.” Feedback may provide the

support a child needs to persist in practic-

ing a newly learned skill. Have you ever

tried to learn a new skill and quit when

you were in the early learning stages?

Perhaps you did not receive encourage-

ment or maybe those initial attempts were

so uncomfortable or awkward that you

decided to stop practicing.

Provide opportunities for practice.

There are a variety of instructional meth-

ods for teaching new social and emotional

skills (Webster-Stratton 1999; Hyson 2004; Kaiser & Rasminsky 2007). An

important teaching practice at the acquisition stage of learning is providing

multiple opportunities for a child to learn a skill in meaningful contexts—

that is, in activities that are part of the child’s natural play or routines. The

more opportunities for practicing, the quicker the child will learn the skill.

The box “Classroom Teaching Strategies” (see p. 5) lists a variety of ways to

teach social and emotional skills within typical classroom activities.

Building fluency: Practice makes perfect

When learning to play a new song on the piano, the player must practice

before the song becomes easy to play. Similarly, when a child learns a new

skill, he needs to practice to build fluency in the skill. When teaching social

skills, teachers need to ensure that a skill is not only learned but also prac-

ticed often enough that the child becomes fluent in the skill and can easily

use it. Consider the following example:

Madison struggles when playing with peers. Recognizing that Madison needs extra

help in learning how to ask others to play with toys, her teacher, Mr. Jackson, decides

to read the children a story about taking turns and asking to join play during group

time. On that same day, several times during center activities and outdoor play, Mr.

Jackson reminds Madison to “ask to play.” After that day of focused instruction on

using the skill, whenever Madison tries to enter a game without asking to play, Mr.

Jackson provides corrective feedback or redirection, stating, “Madison, you need to

ask to play” or “Madison, you may not grab toys; ask to play.” A month later, Madison

still has difficulty entering play and asking to play with toys.

Why did Madison have difficulty learning the skill? Perhaps Mr. Jackson

did not provide enough opportunities to practice, so Madison quickly forgot

to use the new skill. Or possibly Madison had not learned when and how to

use the skill: she may not have become fluent in the skill.

Stages of Learning

Stage 1—Skill acquisition:

Show-and-tell

The teacher introduces a new

skill to a child by giving concrete

examples of what the skill is and

how to use it. For example, the

teacher may say, “It’s hard to

wait until it is your turn to ride a

trike. I’m going to help you learn

how to wait.”

Stage 2—Skill fluency:

Practice makes perfect

The teacher provides many

opportunities to practice the skill

so the child can eventually use

it with ease. Practice opportuni-

ties may include prompting the

child (“How can you ask to play

with Brendan?”), helping the

child remember to use the skill

(“I know you are disappointed

and you want a turn right now.

What can you do instead?”),

and identifying situations that

call for the use of the skill (“We

have three children who want to

sit at the art table and only one

chair. What can we do?”).

Stage 3—Skill mainte-

nance and generalization:

“You got it!”

The teacher continues to pro-

mote the child’s use of the skill

in familiar and new situations.

For example, when the child

uses his newly learned skill of

giving compliments with his

mother, the teacher says, “You

gave your mom a compliment!

Look, she’s smiling because

you said you like her haircut.”

Adapted from D.B. Bailey & M. Wolery,

Teaching Infants and Preschoolers with

Disabilities, 2nd ed. (New York:

Macmillan, 1992).

When a child learns a

new skill, he needs to

practice to build

fluency in the skill.

Beyond the Journal

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Building

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Skills

Modeling. Demonstrate the skill while explaining what

you are doing. As you pass a block to a child, say,

“Look, I am sharing my blocks with my friend.”

Modeling with puppets. Use puppets to model the

skill while interacting with a child, an adult, or another

puppet. A puppet can explain to the teacher and the

class how she became angry and hit her brother to get

a toy. You can ask the puppet to consider other solu-

tions and then discuss what a child might do when he

or she wants a toy that another child is using.

Preparing peer partners. Ask one child to show

another child the skill or to help the child use the tar-

get skill. You can prompt the peer by saying, “Carmen,

Justin is still learning how to wait and take turns.

Since you know what to do, can you help him? Show

him the line-up picture while you wait for a drink at the

water fountain.”

Singing. Introduce a new skill through a song. To

teach children to trade toys, pass out small toys during

a large group activity, then sing the following song to

the tune of “Mary Had a Little Lamb” and practice

trading:

I can be a problem solver, problem solver, problem solver,

I can be a problem solver, let me show you how.

Maybe I can trade with you, trade with you, trade with you,

Maybe I can trade with you; let me show you how.

Children then practice trading toys with each other.

Doing fingerplays. Introduce the skill with a finger-

play, then follow up with a discussion or story. While

showing fingers, have children recite this rhyme:

One little friend cried, “Boo-hoo”; a friend gives a hug

and then there are two.

Two little friends share with me; we play together and

that makes three.

Three little friends ask for more; they all say “Please,”

and then comes four.

Four little friends take turns down the slide; another

comes to play, and that makes five.

Five little friends have fun at school, because they

follow every rule.

Using a flannel board. Introduce a new skill using

flannel board activities and stories. For example, to

teach turn taking you could have flannel pieces for

Humpty Dumpty and change the rhyme so that “All the

king’s horses and all the king’s friends / Work as a

team to put Humpty together again.” As you say the

rhyme, have the children take turns putting the pieces

(castle, bricks, Humpty Dumpty pieces, horses, and

friends) on the flannel board. When you finish the

rhyme, extend the activity by talking about how Humpty

felt when he sat on the wall; when he fell; and when

his friends helped put him back together.

Using prompts. Give a child verbal, visual, or physi-

cal prompts to use a skill during interactions and

activities. When a child who has difficulty with initiating

play interactions moves toward a group playing to-

gether, you might say privately, “Remember to use

your words and ask to play.”

Giving encouragement. Provide specific feedback

when the child uses the skill. For example, describe

what the child did: “You asked Joey for a turn. I saw

that you two had a good time playing together.” En-

couragement can be verbal or a signal (a thumbs-up

or high five).

Using incidental teaching. Guide the child to use

the skill during interactions and activities. Quietly say

to the child, “Quan, I see that you are very angry that

all the trucks are being used. What can you do when

you are angry? Let’s go over the steps.”

Playing games. Use games to teach problem solv-

ing, words that express feelings, identification of

others’ feelings, friendship skills, and so on. Place

photographs of each child in a bag. Have the children

take turns pulling a photo out of the bag and offering a

compliment to the child in the photo.

Discussing children’s literature. Read books to

help teach friendship skills, feeling words, problem

solving, and so on. While reading a story, pause and

ask the children how a character in the story might feel

or ask them to suggest ideas for solving the character’s

problem.

Classroom Teaching Strategies

Instruction is more effective when it is embedded in the meaningful activities and con-

texts that occur throughout a child’s day (Katz & McClellan 1997). Here are suggestions

and examples for teaching social skills within classroom activities.

Additional ideas for many of these activities may be found on the Web site of the Center on the Social and Emotional

Foundations for Early Learning, at

www.csefel.uiuc.edu. Under Resources, click on Practical Strategies.

Find more activities in “Teaching Children a Vocabulary for Emotions,” and “Child-Friendly Ideas for Teaching Problem

Solving” by Lise Fox and Rochelle Harper Lentini, in this issue of

Beyond the Journal.

Beyond the Journal

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Young Children

on the Web • November 2006

Building

Social

Skills

To ensure that children learn a skill to the fluency level, teachers can use several

strategies. They may offer the child multiple opportunities to practice, help the

child link the new concept or skill to other social skills, or remind the child in ad-

vance so he or she can use the skill or concept in new situations.

Scaffolding the use of the skill within

interactions may be effective. For example,

the teacher can monitor child interactions

and offer a verbal bridge for problem solving

when children have conflicts or face difficul-

ties (Katz & McClellan 1997). The teacher can

pose questions like “What else can you do?”

to help children problem solve or “How do

you think Emily felt when you said that?” to

help them take the perspective of the other

child. When scaffolding, the teacher need

only offer as much support or guidance as

the child requires to navigate the situation,

and she should be cautious about becoming

overly directive or controlling the situation.

Additional teaching techniques to pro-

mote fluency include reminding the child,

as she goes into a situation, to use the new

skill; creating opportunities to practice by

staging situations that call for the skill

(creating a problem-solving task or plan-

ning an activity that requires

sharing or taking turns); and

providing the child with peer

buddies who can remind her to

use the new skill.

In the fluency stage of learning,

the teacher should continue to

offer encouragement when the child is practicing the skill.

Promoting maintenance and generalization: “You got it!”

For a child acquiring a new social skill, the final stage of learning is maintaining

and generalizing the skill—learning it to the point that it becomes part of the child’s

social skill repertoire and he uses it in familiar and in new situations. When teach-

ing children social skills, it is important to ensure that children reach this stage.

For many children, moving from skill acquisition to skill generalization occurs

quickly and seamlessly with little teacher effort. However, for children who are at

risk for social development delays or challenging behavior, a more systematic

approach may be needed.

To ensure maintenance and generalization of a new skill, after introducing the

skill and providing practice opportunities, teachers can offer repeated opportuni-

ties to practice the skill in familiar and new situations. At this stage of learning,

children continue to need occasional encouragement to remember to use the skills,

and they need feedback on the successful use of the skill in new situations. The

example that follows describes how Ben’s teacher supported and encouraged Ben

to use his newly learned problem-solving ability in new situations.

Teachers can offer repeated

opportunities to practice the skill

in familiar and new situations.

Beyond the Journal

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Young Children

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Building

Social

Skills

Four-year-old Ben tends to get very frustrated when playing with his peers, especially on the

playground. He screams, pushes children, and grabs toys. Ms. Mitchell, his teacher, has intro-

duced a four-step problem-solving process to the class, using a puppet (who has a problem to

solve) and picture cards depicting the problem-solving process: (1) Ask yourself, What’s my

problem? (2) Think, think, think of some solutions; (3) What would happen? and (4) Give it a try.

Although Ben uses the process during play times, Ms. Mitchell realizes that he needs

additional prompting to problem solve in new situations. Today the class is visiting the

children’s museum. Before entering, Ms. Mitchell takes Ben aside and reviews the problem-

solving steps.

Inside the museum, there are several magnet activity stations, all occupied. Knowing that

Ben will want to play with the magnets, Ms. Mitchell moves near him to give him support.

She reminds Ben about the problem-solving steps: “Remember, think, think, think.” Ben then

says to a child playing with the magnets, “Can I play too?” The child hands him a magnet

and they build together. Ms. Mitchell looks at Ben, winks, and smiles.

The goal at this stage of instruction is for children to use the social skills they

have learned in a variety of situations, helping them build satisfying relationships

with children and adults. They are then motivated by their successes and the joy

they experience playing and developing relationships. As children develop new

social skills and grow in their social competence, they gain access to a wider

variety of play and learning opportunities; increase the duration and complexity of

play interactions and engagement in social interactions; build friendships with

peers; and feel good about themselves.

Conclusions

It is critically important that early educators identify children who need focused

instruction—children who may be considered at risk for challenging behavior.

Teachers can guide them to learn new social and emotional skills, teaching them

within child-centered, developmentally appropriate activities. It is equally impor-

tant to design a systematic teaching approach that allows such children to acquire

and use their new skills easily, over time, and in a variety of situations.

When young children do not know how to identify emotions, handle disappointment

and anger, or develop relationships with peers, a teacher’s best response is to teach!

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